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Consequently, sensitivity and selectivity across fluorescence, electrochemical, and ECL-based biosensors emerge from rational surface and defect engineering at the synthesis stage, underscoring the tight coupling between synthetic design and biosensing functionality, which is also directly extended to the detection of ROS

doi: 10.4103/0028-3886.15057

ERR target-gene expression (for example, Ppargc1a, Tfam, OXPHOS subunits), oxygen-consumption rate in cells, and, in vivo, indirect calorimetry parameters (energy expenditure, RER), plus mitochondrial DNA and cytochrome-c content in muscle

This study design variety strengthens the overall safety assessment by capturing both acute and chronic exposure patterns