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The data, together with the data from the same study measuring pyruvate levels described above, indicate that fasting increased the fumarate/pyruvate, and so also likely increased the malate/pyruvate, indicative of the [NADPH]/[NADP + ], in the spinal cord and several brain regions, including the hippocampus, brainstem, olfactory bulb, and potentially to a smaller extent in the cortex, while potentially decreasing in the hypothalamus (Shao et al., 2023)

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6 Targeting specific cell types in the brain by nanoparticles Astrocytes play a crucial role in maintaining cerebral homeostasis by regulating the BBB, recycling neurotransmitters, remodelling synapses, and balancing ion concentrations (77)