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New insights in vitiligo treatments using bioactive compounds from Piper nigrum

Under hyperglycemic conditions, dysfunction of the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC.) leads to excessive ROS production, subsequently inducing oxidative damage, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations/leakage, and activation of inflammatory pathways such as the NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome and the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING), thereby exacerbating local and systemic inflammation and hindering wound healing (Wang et al., 2025a

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Cao, Z., Subramaniam, S