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The mechanism behind these effects is often attributed to the direct or indirect antioxidant activity of NAC and redox regulation of signal transduction, including WNT/-catenin, TP53, and PI3K/AKT pathways

Some peptides are also available in nasal spray form or as peptide capsules , though bioavailability typically decreases with non-injectable routes

Emodin significantly mitigates cyclophosphamide-induced testicular toxicity in rats by improving sperm function and reproductive hormones levels, reversing oxidative stress and inflammation, and increasing testicular antioxidant enzymes, demonstrating its potential to counteract chemotherapy-related testicular damage [492]

Older men with comorbidities should start at lower initiation doses