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It is unclear how redoxins within the nucleus obtain their reducing power from cytosolic TrxR1 or Gsr, but most likely this will be by a dithiol-disulfide shuttle involving GSH-GSSG and perhaps the redoxins, themselves
Moreover, BPC 157 is very safe, with no adverse effect in clinical trials (i.e., ulcerative colitis), and lethal dose (LD1) was not achieved in toxicology studies (for review, see, i.e., [2,3,4,5,6,7,8])

However, much remains to be understood about biomarkers and how they can best be used for diagnosis

Since GSSG is not readily exported out of mitochondria (Olafsdottir and Reed, 1988
