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Persistent mitochondrial damage in airway epithelium of COPD patients is further evidenced by the increased expression of PINK1, a sensor for damaged mitochondria, and PPARGC1, a regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis [20, 46]

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Therefore, researchers need to further investigate how e-cigarettes affect airway function and the related inflammatory mechanisms to provide scientific evidence for developing more effective public health strategies and patient education